Conditions

Akathasia is defined as the inability to sit still. Learn more about history, symptoms, and treatment of akathasia here.

What is an arteriovenous malformation or AVM? An arteriovenous malformation (AVM) is a developmental vascular abnormality characterized by a tangle of vessels shunting blood directly from arterial to the venous system (Figure 1). Capillaries, the microscopic vascular channels that are typically interposed between an artery and vein, are not present in an AVM. Capillaries are necessary in human physiology because they allow for the delivery and exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from tissue. A natural consequence of blood flow through a capillary system, furthermore, is a reduction of blood pressure from an arterial mean of 80-90mm Hg...

Ataxia causes loss of the coordination of muscle movements. These symptoms may be caused by degenerative disorders affecting the brain or spinal cord with resultant clumsiness, inaccuracy of movement, imbalance and tremor while performing voluntary movements.

Atheosis is defined as a contorted torsion or twisting of the body that prevents stable posture. Learn more about atheosis clinical studies, etiology, and therapies here.

In this Article Below are a number of frequently asked questions about brain aneurysms: What is a brain aneurysm? What are the symptoms of a brain aneurysm? What are the symptoms of a ruptured brain aneurysm? How are brain aneurysms diagnosed? Should my aneurysm be treated or observed over time? What are the treatment options for a non-ruptured brain aneurysm? What are the treatment options for a ruptured brain aneurysm? Almost all patients with brain aneurysms, also known as cerebral aneurysms, can be treated safely and effectively using the latest techniques, with minimal downtime. In many cases, patients may require...

In this article Review some of the most commonly asked questions about brain arteriovenous malformation: What is an arteriovenous malformation? How common are brain AVMs? Why do brain AVMs occur? What are the symptoms of a brain AVM? What causes brain AVMs to bleed? Are there different types of brain AVMs? How are AVMs diagnosed? What is the best treatment for an AVM? What is an arteriovenous malformation? Typically arteries carry blood with oxygen from the heart to the brain and veins carry blood with less oxygen away from the brain and back to the heart. An arteriovenous malformation, also...

Commonly asked questions: What is a Brain Tumor? What causes Brain Tumors? What Are The Symptoms of a Cerebral Tumor? How is a Cerebral Tumor Diagnosed? What Are the Treatment Options? What is a brain tumor? Brain, or cerebral, tumors are abnormal growths of cells in the brain that can either be benign or malignant. They can form in different parts of the brain and have varying effects on brain function and overall health. There are two main types of cerebral tumors: primary tumors and secondary tumors. Primary tumors originate in the brain and are classified based on the type...

For more information, please see our frequently asked questions about herniated discs. What is a vertebral disc? The disc is the cushion between the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar vertebrae. The disc is cartilage on the outside and a gel-like center or nucleus on the inside. The discs throughout the spine have three main functions: Acting as shock absorbers in the spine. Acting as supportive structures to hold the vertebrae together. Are cartilaginous joints that allow the spine to have slight mobility. What is disc herniation or disc bulging? The disc is subject to many external forces that can result in...

Bursitis is an inflammation of a fluid filled sac called the bursa that decreases friction in joints such as the shoulder elbow knee and ankle. It is seen with overuse of the joint. It is usually treated conservatively and rarely requires surgical intervention. Learn more about bursitis therapies, diagnosis, and clinical trials here.

In this article Review some of the most commonly asked questions about carotid artery stenosis: What is carotid artery stenosis? What are the causes of carotid artery stenosis? What are the risks of carotid artery stenosis? What are the symptoms of carotid artery stenosis? How to diagnose carotid artery stenosis? Is carotid artery stenosis curable? What is carotid artery stenosis? Carotid artery stenosis is a condition in which there is narrowing of the carotid arteries. There are two carotid arteries, one on each side of the neck. The carotid arteries are two of the major blood vessels that provide the...

Carpal tunnel syndrome refers to an irritation or inflammation of the Median nerve in the wrist. This nerve supplies the first three fingers in the hand and half of the ring finger. Patients complain of pain or numbness especially at night because your wrist may be bent causing pressure on the Median nerve in your wrist. Evaluation in our office will determine the severity of the carpal tunnel syndrome. If needed referral to a hand surgeon is possible but, in most cases, this can be treated non-surgically.

Cavernous malformations occur in 0.3-0.5% of the population and in 1/200 people between the ages of 30-50. Pathologically, a cavernoma contains vascular channels without the typical architecture of normal blood vessels. Headache, bleeding and seizures are the most common presenting events although a proportion of lesions are discovered incidentally. Hemorrhage rates range from 0.5% to 6% annually; bleeeding rates are higher in brainstem cavernomas or in those that had bled previously. Apart from surveillance of asymptomatic lesions, treatment is limited to surgery and is indicated in patients with hemorrhagic lesions, in those with intractable seizures or who have suffered from...

In this article Review some of the most commonly asked questions about Cerebral (Brain) Aneurysms: What is a Cerebral Aneurysm? What Are The Symptoms of a Brain Aneurysm? What Are The Symptoms of a Ruptured Brain Aneurysm? What are the Risk Factors for Cerebral Aneurysm? How Are Brain Aneurysms Diagnosed? What Are Treatments For Brain Aneurysms? What is a Cerebral Aneurysm? A cerebral aneurysm, also known as a brain aneurysm, is a bulge or ballooning in a blood vessel in the brain. These aneurysms can be life-threatening if they rupture, as they can cause bleeding in the brain, also known...

In this article Review some of the most commonly asked questions about Cervical Stenosis: What is Cervical Stenosis? What Causes Cervical Stenosis? What Are The Symptoms You Should Look Out For? What Are Treatment Options? What is Cervical Stenosis? Cervical stenosis is a condition in which the spinal canal in the neck narrows, leading to compression of the spinal cord or nerve roots. This can result in a range of symptoms including neck pain, numbness and tingling in the arms, weakness in the arms and legs, and difficulty with coordination and balance. What Causes Cervical Stenosis? The exact cause of...

In this article Review some of the most commonly asked questions about chiari malformation: What is chiari malformation? What are the different types of chiari malformation? What are the symptoms of chiari malformation? Chiari malformation surgery options What is chiari malformation? Chiari malformation is a condition where part of the brain extends into the spinal canal. Chiari malformations are relatively rare—affecting less than one in 1000 people—and are often asymptomatic. Of the symptoms that do occur, headaches are the most common. While Chiari malformation is something people are born with, in the majority of cases people do not experience symptoms...

Chorea is defined by rapid, writhing involuntary movements that may be caused by a variety of illnesses most notably Huntington’s Disease. This progressive, genetically transmitted neurodegenerative disease results from a deterioration of a specific population of brain cells. Symptoms include jerking and uncontrollable movements of the face, trunk, and limbs. There is also a progressive loss of mental abilities and the development of psychiatric problems. Treatment focuses on reducing symptoms, preventing complications, and providing social support for patients and family. Learn more about chorea and its interactions with other diseases here.

What is a colloid cyst? A colloid cyst is a benign tumor typically located in the center of the brain within the fluid filled ventricular system. The growth potential of these cysts is variable and often difficult to predict particularly if they are found incidentally by MR or CT imaging. What are treatments for a colloid cyst? Surgery may be offered for removal when it is felt that the cyst is the source of headache or if there is evidence of blockage of the natural flow of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) causing hydrocephalus. Surgical treatment may be performed by an endoscopic...

What is a cubital tunnel? The cubital tunnel is the inner part of the elbow and carries the ulnar nerve. It is frequently called the funny bone. What is cubital tunnel syndrome? In cubital tunnel syndrome pressure on the ulnar nerve can cause numbness and tingling in the ring finger and small finger of the hand. It is frequently worse when the elbow is bent. What are common treatments? In our office, we can determine the severity of the nerve compression and then decide on the appropriate course of treatment. Simple things like avoiding a bent elbow at night and...

What is dystonia? Dystonia is characterized by abnormal posturing and muscle movement that may mimic the signs of Parkinson’s disease, Tourette’s syndrome, or Essential Tremor. These similarities often lead to a delay in diagnosis and suboptimal treatment. What are common dystonia treatments? As with other movement disorders, there is a spectrum of medications including muscle relaxants, Botulinum toxin injections and other agents that together with appropriately supervised physical therapy offer relief.

Essential tremor is a slowly progressing neurological disorder that most commonly affects the arm and hand. It may progress to involve the head and neck and rarely the lower extremities. This condition alters the precision of movement and may limit basic functions such as writing, eating, drinking or dressing oneself. The cause of the disease remains unknown and although there is no known cure, treatment options are greatly effective in alleviating symptoms by allowing patients to have more control over their daily activities. Generally, medical management using propranolol, primidone or alprazolam have been shown to be of benefit. An incisionless...

Difficulty with balance, unsteadiness, difficulty initiating gait, freezing of gait during walking, and spontaneous falls may be secondary to a variety of conditions. Learn more about the diagnosis of apraxia here.

What is Glossopharyngeal Neuralgia? Glossopharyngeal neuralgia syndrome results from the irritation of the 9th cranial or glossopharyngeal nerve resulting in pain of the upper throat and back of the tongue that is accentuated by eating and swallowing (figure 1,2). The pattern of pain that comes with this syndrome is often mistaken as a dental issue or TMJ. The source of irritation is similar to that of trigeminal neuralgia and hemi-facial spasm and involves pulsation from an intimately apposed cerebral vessel, usually the posterior inferior cerebellar artery. glossopharyngeal neuralgia is often mistaken aswith medications more commonly used for trigeminal neuralgia with...

Golfers elbow or medial epicondylitis is inflammation of the tendon that connects the inner forearm muscles to the inner elbow. It is usually seen in nongolf activities and can cause pain with grasp, squeezing and pouring. As in tennis elbow it can usually be treated conservatively.

What is a Hemifacial Spasm? Hemifacial spasm syndrome results from vascular compression and distortion of the 7th cranial or facial nerve resulting in painless twitching of the muscles of the face (figure 1,2), or facial muscle spasms. Medical management is the first course of action, together with chemodenvervation achieved by Botulinum Toxin injections. Microvascular decompression is reserved for patients with persistent symptoms despite these treatments. See videos below. Figure 1 MR image demonstrating the posterior inferior cerebellar artery (red arrow) passing under and in close proximity of the facial nerve at its entry zone into the brainstem (white arrow). Figure...

In this article Review some of the most commonly asked questions about a herniated disc: What is a herniated disc? What causes a herniated disc? What are the symptoms of a herniated disc? How is a herniated disc diagnosed? What are the non-surgical treatment options available for a herniated disc? What are the surgical treatment options available for a herniated disc? What is the recovery time after herniated disc surgery? What is a herniated disc? A herniated disc, also known as a ruptured or slipped disc, is a condition in which the soft center of a disc pushes (herniates) through...

Arthritis of the hip is quite common and is usually due to mechanical wear and tear of the cartilage in the ball-and-socket joint. Pain can be in the buttock area the side of the hip and commonly the groin and front of the thigh. Patients frequently complained of difficulty crossing their leg putting on a sock or tying a sneaker. As with knee arthritis, there are several nonsurgical treatment options.

What is Hydrocephalus? Within the brain are fluid filled cavities called ventricles. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is synthesized in the ventricles by the choroid plexus-frondlike structures which are attached to the ventricular wall. CSF circulates from within the ventricles to the subarachnoid space surrounding the brain. The fluid suspends the brain and spinal cord in the cranial cavity and spinal canal respectively. Ultimately, CSF is reabsorbed into the venous system via structures called arachnoid granulations. Hydrocephalus defines a condition whereby the ventricles become enlarged as a result of a defect in the circulation or reabsorption of CSF (Figure 1). Tumors, blood,...

Intra-Cerebral Hemorrhage is a general term that defines an accumulation of blood anywhere in the brain. ICH does not necessarily imply the cause of bleeding. Typically non-traumatic sources include vascular malformations, aneurysms, blood clotting disorders, including those on blood thinners, tumors, and vascular disease resulting from high blood pressure. Surgical evacuation may be indicated for accessible hematomas in those with a declining level of consciousness once any alteration in blood clotting is corrected. Figure 1 Axial CT reveals a sizable right basal ganglia Intra-Cerebral Hemorrhage secondary to long-standing untreated hypertension. Midline indicated by black line bisecting cranium measurement of midline...

Review some of the most commonly asked questions about Intracranial Hypotension: What is Intracranial Hypotension? What is the most common cause of Intracranial Hypotension? What are the symptoms of Intracranial Hypotension? How is Intracranial Hypotension diagnosed? What are the treatments for Intracranial Hypotension? Intracranial hypotension and cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) leak What is Intracranial hypotension? Intracranial hypotension, also known as a cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) leak, is a condition where there is a decrease in the amount of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) that surrounds the brain and spinal cord. This can lead to a decrease in pressure within the skull, which...

Intraventricular Hemorrhage (IVH) is an accumulation of blood within the ventricular system that may occur spontaneously (from hypertension, blood thinners), from tumors or vascular malformations or as a result of a surgical intervention. IVH may obstruct the normal flow and reabsorption of cerebrospinal fluid and cause hydrocephalus. Treatments include external ventricular drainage, ventriculoperitoneal shunting, and instillation of the potent blood thinner Tissue Plasminogen Activator (TPA) directly into the ventricular system (Figure 1, 2). Over time the coagulum is metabolized by the body; an assessment of the status of CSF reabsorption is then undertaken to anticipate symptomatic hydrocephalus. Figure 1 Top...

Arthritis of the knee is usually due to mechanical wear and tear of the cartilage and the meniscus. One can experience pain, stiffness swelling, and even a “giving way” feeling. We call this instability. Stairs can be particularly problematic. There are many nonsurgical options to treat this conservatively.

What causes low back pain? Low back pain is the second most common complaint seen in a doctor’s office after the common cold. We all will get a flare of low back pain at some time in our lives. Many things can cause low back pain, and most are not serious but if back pain persists, it needs to be evaluated. Back pain can be muscular or related to spinal stenosis, arthritis, or a herniated disc. The good news is that most low back pain is temporary and will go away with conservative care. The key is staying mobile, avoiding...

In this article Review some of the most commonly asked questions about Meningioma: What is Meningioma? How does Meningioma Occur? What Are The Symptoms of Meningioma? How is Meningioma Diagnosed? How Are Cerebral (Brain) Aneurysms Diagnosed? What Are Treatment Options For Meningioma? What is Meningioma? Meningioma is a type of brain tumor that occurs in the meninges, the protective membranes that surround the brain and spinal cord. It is one of the most common brain tumors, affecting approximately 1 in every 200 people. They most often occur near the brain but also can occur near the spinal cord. These tumors...

The meniscus is the cartilage shock absorber between the femur and the tibia. Problems with the meniscus can range from mild wear and tear to thinning of the cartilage to a tear from injury, usually twisting. Symptoms can range from mild to the other extreme, of instability or giving way of the knee and locking. Physical examination and imaging give us a far better idea of the extent of damage and help us plan a course of treatment. Learn more about a torn meniscus here.

Myoclonus is a term used to refer to twitching or intermittent spasms of a muscle or group of muscles. Classified into several different types and causes with Hemifacial Spasm representing the most common manifestation of peripheral myoclonus.

What is Parkinson’s Disease? Parkinson’s Disease is a degenerative condition of the central nervous system that results in a slowing of movement, tremor, postural abnormalities, loss of facial expression, rigidity, impaired balance, and in some cases alterations in behavior and thought. The source of impaired function results from the loss of a population of dopamine producing cells in a region of the brain called the ‘substantia nigra’. Dopamine, a neurotransmitter, regulates the excitability of other cell populations that are involved in motor function. The loss of the orchestrated release of dopamine has a profound impact on movement. In most cases,...

“Knee With Patella Right x-ray 0003 – no info” by akeg is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0 What is kneecap pain or patella pain? Knee pain is frequently related to problems with the kneecap or patella. The condition is known as patellofemoral syndrome. What causes kneecap pain? Causes include soft tissue inflammation such as patella bursitis, misalignment of the patella as it moves up and down the knee, or arthritis or wear-and-tear of the cartilage behind the patella. History, physical examination, and at times imaging can help us determine the exact cause and conservative course of treatment.

What is the rotator cuff? The rotator cuff is a series of muscles in the shoulder that allows us to throw a ball, comb hair, reach behind us and hold a container and then pour. What causes rotator cuff impingement and tendonitis? Frequently the muscles can become inflamed without a tear because of friction with the surrounding bone or with overuse. What are common treatments? Conservative treatment is usually indicated and with the proper anti-inflammatories and exercises, surgery can be avoided.

The rotator cuff is a series of four muscles that rotate the shoulder allowing one to throw a ball, reach up, comb hair, brush teeth, scratch the back and take a container out of the refrigerator and pour. Rotator cuff problems can be from injury or from wear and tear. Patients will frequently complain of difficulty reaching into the backseat of a car and night pain when rolling over onto the shoulder. Evaluation in our office will determine the exact cause and plan of treatment.

What is sciatica? This is a term that is used to describe pain and/or numbness that radiates from the back into the buttock area and frequently down the thigh and calf to the foot. It is quite common, and evaluation will determine if the origin is the lower back, a disc bulge, a herniated disc or spinal stenosis. What are some common sciatica treatments? It is usually treated non-surgically with modified exercise, anti-inflammatory medication as needed, occasional injection and careful attention to ergonomics. Prolonged sitting, soft couches and lifting the wrong way all can contribute to low back pain and...

Spasticity is caused by an increase in muscular tone resulting in stiffness of the muscles and a restriction of movement. Patients may develop pain, permanent contraction of the muscles and alterations in posture. Often, quality of life is impacted substantially due to these symptoms. Spasticity usually develops in patients with spinal cord injury, cerebral palsy, multiple sclerosis or stroke. Treatment may involve a regimen of medication, exercise and physical therapy, and may be supplemented by botulinum toxin injection or surgery. Surgical treatments may include relaxation of muscles by release of tendons, implantation of a baclofen pump or cutting nerve fibers (selective dorsal rhizotomy)

Review some of the most commonly asked questions about herniated discs: What is a Spinal Disc Herniation? How do Disc Herniations Occur? What Are The Symptoms of a Spinal Disc Herniation? How is a Spinal Disc Herniation Diagnosed? What Are Treatment Options For Spinal Disc Herniation? What is a Spinal Disc Herniation? A spinal disc herniation, also known as a slipped or ruptured disc, occurs when the soft, gel-like center of a spinal disc bulges out through a tear in the outer layer. This can put pressure on the nerves in the spinal cord and cause pain, numbness, and weakness...

Spinal fistulae or dural arteriovenous fistulous malformations (DAVFM) represent an aberrant connection between the arterial and venous systems. Fistulae most often develop in adulthood and may be associated with a history of trauma or surgery. Presenting symptoms of the condition include pain, weakness, numbness, imbalance and incoordination (myelopathy). Watch More on YouTube

What is spinal stenosis? Stenosis is a Greek word that means narrowing. In spinal stenosis the spinal canal which is the conduit for the spinal cord and nerves is narrowed, frequently from arthritis or a combination of arthritis and bulging disks. What causes spinal stenosis? The cause of spinal stenosis is most commonly seen as we age and in the lower back can present with pain or heaviness in the buttocks or thighs with a reduced walking distance. Patients frequently compensate by bending forward, for example preferring to use a shopping cart in a supermarket. In cervical spinal stenosis there...

What is Subarachnoid Hemorrhage? Subarachnoid Hemorrhage (SAH) is a collection of blood in the subarachnoid space, a fluid filled space between the brain and the skull. Most commonly, SAH occurs as a result of a closed head injury and is treated supportively. Alternatively, spontaneous (non-traumatic) SAH is a type of stroke that affects approximately 30,000 people annually. Although tumors and other vascular malformations (AVM, Cavernous malformation and DAVFM) are associated with SAH, aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage is the most common source of bleeding and is associated with the highest morbidity. Despite advances in medical and surgical treatment, aneurysmal SAH remains a...

Tardive Dyskinesia is abnormal involuntary movements resulting from prolonged exposure to medications used to treat symptoms of nausea or psychiatric diseases. The condition is characterized by repetitive, involuntary, and purposeless movements affecting the face, mouth, trunk and limbs.

What Causes Tendinitis? Tendons are the attachment between muscle and bone. They are frequently under tension and as a result tendinitis, inflammation or small tears, can occur. Old injuries can cause discomfort for long periods of time if the tendon does not heal properly. We most commonly see this in the elbow, so-called tennis elbow or golfer’s elbow but also see it in the wrist, biceps, shoulder knee and ankle.

Tennis elbow or lateral epicondylitis is inflammation of the tendon that connects the outside forearm muscles to the outer elbow. It is usually seen in non-tennis activities and can cause pain with grip, forearm rotation, and grasping and pouring. It is usually treated conservatively and rarely requires surgical treatment.

Repetitive, involuntary movements and uncontrollable vocal sounds called tics.

In this article Review some of the most commonly asked questions about Trigeminal Neuralgia: What is Trigeminal Neuralgia? What Are The Symptoms? How does Trigeminal Neuralgia Occur? What Are Medical Treatment Options For Trigeminal Neuralgia? What Are Surgical Medical Treatment Options For Trigeminal Neuralgia? What is Trigeminal Neuralgia? Trigeminal Neuralgia is a chronic pain condition that affects the trigeminal nerve, which is responsible for sensation in the face. It is also known as tic douloureux,it is a painful and greatly debilitating affliction that can present in discrete, brief attacks followed by a variable period without any symptoms. In other more...

Trigger finger is locking of the finger in the bent or fist position. It is usually worst in the mornings and after the finger unlocks it improves a bit through the day. It is usually due to an inflammation of the tendon which is the pulley that connects muscles in the forearm to the bones of the fingers allowing for movement. Treatment can include topical anti-inflammatories, splints, cortisone injection and occasionally a minor surgical procedure to release the triggering finger.

Bursitis of the hip is extremely common and there is inflammation of the soft tissues of the outside of the hip. Inflammation can be of the fluid-filled sac called the bursa or can be inflammation of the tendons that connect the buttock gluteal muscles to the side of the hip.

Vascular dissection is an injury to the wall of an artery that may result in either subarachnoid hemorrhage, formation of a blister-like pseudoaneurysm, or occlusion of the vessel (Figure 1,2). Partial or complete arterial occlusion may cause a critical decrease in blood flow and in turn oxygen delivery resulting in an ischemic stroke. Vascular dissection may occur spontaneously, be the result of direct blunt trauma or as a complication of angiography. Treatment is either with blood thinning agents i.e. aspirin, plavix or warfarin or with endovascular stenting of the vessel. Figure 1 Left: Carotid angiogram demonstrating a vascular dissection with resultant narrowing of the vessel...

The term vasculitis refers to inflammation causing irritation of the arterial system resulting in narrowing or occlusion of blood vessels. Vasculitis patients present with headaches, alteration of consciousness (encephalopathy), symptoms of stroke or coma. CT and MR are non-specific although findings on cerebral angiography are often diagnostic demonstrating irregular narrowing of blood vessels (stenosis) (Figure 1,2). An analysis of spinal fluid as obtained from a spinal tap may also be helpful although a brain biopsy is sometimes necessary to facilitate diagnosis. Treatment depends on the underlying cause of vasculitis but usually requires immunosuppressant agents. Figure 1 Lateral carotid cerebral angiogram demonstrating...

Vasospasm is a condition whereby arterial diameter narrows with a resultant decrease in blood flow and in turn oxygen delivery (Figure 1,2). Muscular contraction of the arterial wall may be caused by surgical manipulation or medications but occurs most notably after aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. Classically, vasospasm develops in up to 20% of patients within 4-14 days after aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. The delayed complications related to ischemic stroke such as paralysis, loss of the ability to speak or coma may occur after what had been an otherwise uneventful aneurysmal clipping or coiling. Figure 1 Left: AP angiogram showing vasospasm of the internal...

What is Venous Sinus Thrombosis? The venous system is comprised of deep and superficial cortical veins that drain into larger channels called venous sinuses. These in turn drain into the jugular venous system of the neck. In certain circumstances, blood within these channels may coagulate i.e. thrombose and obstruct normal venous flow. Resultant congestion and cerebral swelling cause headache, seizures, ICH, stroke, and in some cases death. Venous sinus thrombosis occurs in patients with blood disorders, in the dehydrated and is a complication of pregnancy. Treatment may include hydration, anti-seizure medications, blood thinners and in some cases endovascular lysis of...

The term whiplash refers to a strain of the neck or cervical muscles usually from a sudden acceleration or deceleration forward or backward. This is commonly seen in car accidents but can also be seen after a fall or athletic injury. The injury can affect the soft tissues of the neck as well as the discs and nerves. The pain can start in the neck but eventually radiate into the shoulders, scapula, or arms. A careful history and physical examination will determine the course of treatment. Learn more about whiplash-related cervical vertigo here.

Wilson’s disease is a genetic disorder that results in the excessive accumulation of copper in the liver and brain leading to a spectrum of neuropsychiatric and movement disorders. Learn more about the history, diagnosis, and treatment of Wilson’s Disease here.